# The Living Thing / Notebooks : Informations

Not: what you hope to get from the newspaper. Rather: Different types of (formally defined) entropy/information and their disambiguations.

The seductive power of the logarithm. Information criteria.

A proven path to publication is to find or reinvent a derived measure based on Shannon information, and apply it to something provocative-sounding. (Qualia! Stock markets! Evolution! Language! The qualia of evolving stock market languages!)

## Shannon Information

Vanilla information, thanks be to Claude Shannon. You have are given a discrete random process of specificed parameterisation. How much can you compress it down to a more parsimonious process? (leaving coding theory aside for the moment.)

Given a random variable $$X$$ taking values $$x \in \mathcal{X}$$ from some discrete alphabet $$\mathcal{X}$$, with probability mass function $$p(x)$$.

\begin{equation*} \begin{array}{ccc} H(x) & := & -\sum_{x \in \mathcal{X}} p(x) \log p(x) \\ & \equiv & E( \log 1/p(x) ) \end{array} \end{equation*}

## K-L divergence

Because “Kullback-Leibler divergence” is a lot of syllables for something you use so often, even if usually in sentences like “unlike the K-L divergences”. Or you could call it the “relative entropy”, but that sounds like something to do with my uncle after the seventh round of christmas drinks.

It is defined between the probability mass functions of two discrete random variables, $$P,Q$$, where those probability mass functions are given $$p(x)$$ and $$q(x)$$ respectively.

\begin{equation*} \begin{array}{cccc} D(P \parallel Q) & := & -\sum_{x \in \mathcal{X}} p(x) \log p(x) \frac{p(x)}{q(x)} \\ & \equiv & E \log p(x) \frac{p(x)}{q(x)} \end{array} \end{equation*}

## Mutual information

The “informativeness” of one variable given another… Most simply, the K-L divergence between the product distribution and the joint distribution of two random variables. (That is, it vanishes if the two variables are independent).

Now, take $$X$$ and $$Y$$ with joint probability mass distribution $$p_{XY}(x,y)$$ and, for clarity, marginal distributions $$p_X$$ and $$p_Y$$.

Then the mutual information :math:I is given

\begin{equation*} I(X; Y) = H(X) - X(X|Y) \end{equation*}

Estimating this one has been giving me grief lately, so I’ll be happy when I get to this section and solve it forever. See nonparametric mutual information.

Getting an intuition of what this measure does is handy, so I’ll expound some equivalent definitions that emphasis different characteristics:

\begin{equation*} \begin{array}{cccc} I(X; Y) & := & \sum_{x \in \mathcal{X}} \sum_{y \in \mathcal{Y}} p_{XY}(x, y) \log p(x, y) \frac{p_{XY}(x,y)}{p_X(x)p_Y(y)} \\ & = & D( p_{XY} \parallel p_X p_Y) \\ & = & E \log \frac{p_{XY}(x,y)}{p_X(x)p_Y(y)} \end{array} \end{equation*}

## Kolmogorov-Sinai entropy

Schreiber says:

If $$I$$ is obtained by coarse graining a continuous system $$X$$ at resolution $$\epsilon$$, the entropy $$HX(\epsilon)$$ and entropy rate $$hX(\epsilon)$$ will depend on the partitioning and in general diverge like $$\log(\epsilon)$$ when $$\epsilon \to 0$$. However, for the special case of a deterministic dynamical system, $$lim_{\epsilon\to 0} hX (\epsilon) = hKS$$ may exist and is then called the Kolmogorov-Sinai entropy. (For non-Markov systems, also the limit $$k \to \infty$$ needs to be taken.)

That is, it is a special case of the entropy rate for a dynamical system. - Cue connection to algorithmic complexity

## Rényi Information

Also, the Hartley measure.

You don’t need to use a logarithm in your information summation. Free energy, something something. (?)

The observation that many of the attractive features of information measures are simply due to the concavity of the logarithm term in the function. So, why not whack another concave function with even more handy features in there? Bam, you are now working on Rényi information. How do you feel?

## Tsallis Statistics

Attempting to make information measures “non-extensive”. q*-entropy. Seems to have made a big splash in Brazil, but less in other countries. There are good books about highly localised mathematical oddities in that nation, but not ones I’d cite in academic articles. Non-extensive measures are an intriguing idea, though. I wonder if it’s parochialism that keeps everyone off Tsallis statistics, or a lack of demonstrated use?

## Fisher information

### Estimating information

Wait, you don’t know the informativeness of the sources a priori? You need to estimate it from data.

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